Character traits culture of ancient civilization of Greece
In Greece, religious innovations did not play a significant role - the mythological consciousness was decomposing, faith in the Olympian gods was weakening, eastern cults were being borrowed - Astarte, Cybele, but the ancient Greeks did not bother to create their own original religion. This does not mean that they were not religious. Irreligion, asebeia, in the minds of the Greeks was a crime. In 432 BC. e. The priest Dionif presented a draft of a new law, according to which anyone who does not believe in the existence of immortal gods and boldly talks about what is happening in heaven will be brought to justice. Which means they were. Homer no longer feels much respect for the Olympian gods, who in his poems do not appear in the best way, reminiscent of mortal people with their treachery, greed, and malice. His gods are by no means the height of perfection. The law proposed by Dionymphos was directed directly against the “philosophers”, in particular against Anaxagoras, who was forced to flee from Athens. Later, Socrates will be accused of atheism and executed. And yet, the very adoption of such laws is evidence of the underdevelopment of religious culture and its formal nature.
Thus, at this point, the development of ancient Greek culture took a different path than in the more ancient civilizations of the “first wave”. There, all the energy of the nation was absorbed by religious ideology. In Greece, myth, decaying, feeds the secular Logos, the word. The world religion, Christianity, comes late, when the culture of antiquity experiences its last days. Moreover, Christianity is not actually a Greek discovery. It is borrowed by antiquity from the East.
Another, no less important, feature of the culture of antiquity, which is demonstrated by Ancient Greece, was the more radical nature of the cultural shift. Philosophy, literature, theater, lyric poetry, the Olympic Games appear for the first time, they have no predecessors in previous forms of spirituality. In the culture of the ancient civilizations of the East we will find mysteries - the predecessors of the theater, sports fights, poetry, prose, philosophy. But they do not acquire such a developed institutional character there as in Greece; they still feed new religious and philosophical systems, sometimes without occupying an independent position. In Ancient Greece, philosophy, literature, theater very quickly became independent types of culture, became isolated, turned into specialized, professional look activities.
Another, no less significant, feature of the culture of ancient Greece was the unusually high rate of cultural change: they spanned approximately 300 years, from the 6th century. BC e. up to the 3rd century. BC e., when stagnation and subsequent decline are detected.
The culture of ancient Greece is similar to a mayfly butterfly. It arises quickly, but disappears just as quickly. But subsequently the neighboring culture of Ancient Rome, the civilizations of the East and Africa will feed on its fruits, and through them the cultural influence of Antiquity will nourish the culture of Europe.
Unlike the cultures of the civilizations of the Ancient East, which were characterized by the “Asian mode of production” with centralized state, performing productive functions, the polis (city-state) played a huge role in ancient Greece. On the eve of the 8th century. BC e. clan society is disintegrating. The latter was characterized by settlements as forms of joint residence of relatives or members of the tribe. The class stratification inherent in civilization leads to the emergence of neighborly connections and a different type of residence - the city. The formation of cities occurs in the form of synoicism - a connection, merging of several settlements into one, for example, Athens arises from the union of 12 villages, Sparta unites 5, Tegea and Mantinea 9 settlements each. Thus, the formation of a policy system is a dynamic process spanning several decades. In such a short period of time, old, ancestral ties could not completely disappear; they persisted for a long time, forming the spirit of the arche - the faceless origin that underlies urban collectivism, the polis community. Arche conservation underlies many forms of urban life. Its center was the agora - a square where political meetings were held and court hearings were held. Later central square will turn into a trading place where financial and commercial transactions will be carried out. Public spectacles - tragedies - will be staged in the agora, questions about the most outstanding works of art will be decided, etc. Publicity, openness, openness of politics, art, city government are evidence that in this initial period After the formation of civilization, alienation has not yet gripped the free population of the city; it retains within itself the consciousness of a community of interests, affairs, and fate.
Ancient Greece was never a single centralized state with a single politics, religion, and normative art. It consisted of many city-states, completely independent, often at war with each other, and sometimes entering into political alliances with each other. It was not typical for it to have one, capital city - the center of administrative, political life, the legislator in the field of culture. Each city independently resolved issues of what was proper and necessary, what was beautiful and perfect, what corresponded to its ideas about the culture of man and society.
Therefore, the ancient culture of Greece was characterized by a desire for diversity rather than unity. Unity arose as a result, a product of the collision, competition, competition of diverse cultural products. Therefore, the culture was characterized by agon - the spirit of competition, rivalry, permeating all aspects of life.
Cities competed, compiling lists of “7 wise men”, including a representative of their city. The dispute was about the "7 Wonders of the World", covering all Greek settlements and beyond. Every year the magistrate decided which tragedies, which playwright, would be played in the city square. Last year's winner could be this year's loser. No civilization discovered the Olympic Games - only the ancient Greeks did. Once every four years, wars, disputes, hostility ceased, and all cities sent their strongest, fastest, most agile, hardy athletes to the foot of Mount Olympus, closer to the Olympian gods. The winner received panhellenic lifelong glory, a solemn meeting in hometown, entry is not through an ordinary gate, but through a hole in the wall, specially made for him by enthusiastic fans. And the city-polis received universal fame for being able to raise an Olympic winner. Disputes sometimes took on a strange character: seven cities argued among themselves for a long time about where Homer’s grave was located. But this dispute is evidence of changed values; it could arise when the epic poetry of Homer became a pan-Greek value, a single epic basis that united all Greek city-states, creating the spiritual unity of civilization, the unity of its culture.
The diversity of the culture of ancient Greece led to the strengthening of its unity, community, and similarity, which allows us to speak of cultural integrity, despite the political and economic contradictions that tore the country apart. Ancient civilization, having split society into opposing classes, political interests, and rival policies, was unable to create a sufficiently strong unity through the means of spiritual culture.
Let's look at the list of "seven wise men". Usually they were called: Thales from Miletus, Solon from Athens, Bias from Priene, Pittacus from Mytilene, Cleobulus from Lindus, Periander from Corinth, Chilon from Sparta. As you can see, the list includes representatives of the cities of Ancient Greece from the Peloponnese Peninsula to the Asia Minor coast. At the time the list was compiled, it reflected only the general past and the desired future, but not the present. This list is a cultural construction program, but not a harsh reality. But reality demonstrated intense rivalry and hostility between cities, which ultimately broke cultural unity.
The development of the culture of Ancient Greece was greatly influenced by natural conditions, in which the proto-Greek tribes who captured this territory found themselves. Here, on the Peloponnese and the Asia Minor coast, there are no large areas suitable for cultivating grain and producing bread - the main food product. Therefore, the Greeks had to create colonies outside of Hellas: in the Apennines, in Sicily, in the Northern Black Sea region. When receiving bread and grain from the colonies, it was necessary to offer them something in exchange. What could the poor woman offer? natural resources Greece? Its lands were suitable for cultivating olives, raw materials for the production of olive oil. Thus, Greece has occupied an important place in world trade, supplying olive oil to international markets. Another product that ensured the prosperity of the culture was grape wine. It is not for nothing that Homer’s Odysseus “teaches” the Cyclops Polyphemus how to prepare wine. Olive oil and wine required the development of ceramic production, the production of amphorae, which contained liquids and bulk products (grain, flour, salt). The production of ceramics gave impetus to the development of handicraft production, intermediary world trade, and the early formation of merchants and financial capital. All this was connected to the sea - the main transport route ancient world. No people of that period created poems in which the sea was mentioned so often. The Greeks were a sea people: the Argonauts make a campaign to Colchis, on the eastern coast of the Black Sea; for ten years the sea-ocean carries Odysseus on itself, not allowing him to reach home, and even later he will have to wander until he meets a man who does not distinguish between an oar and a shovel. The entire Trojan cycle is also associated with sea expeditions. The rapid development of handicraft production, which means the development of cities, shipping, and intermediary trade, is the source of the development of Greek culture. Friedrich Goebbel in the tragedy “Gyges and His Ring” correctly noted a special feature of ancient Greek culture:
"You, Greeks, are a smart tribe: for you
Others spin, but you yourself weave,
A network emerges, there is not a single thread in it,
The one you have tied up is still your network."
The ancient Greeks realized very early on that when trading it is not profitable to trade in raw materials, that the greater profit is made by those who sell finished products, the final product, and not the intermediate product. It is in the final product, ready for immediate consumption, that the culture is concentrated. Culture is the result, the product of the concentrated efforts of society, the integrated labor of people. Sand prepared for construction, marble blocks, slaked lime - all these are products of intermediate efforts, partial labor, which do not constitute integrity in their fragmentation. And only a temple (or palace, or house) created from these materials represents the culture of society in a concentrated form.
The culture of ancient Greece is the culture of civilization, that is, a society with a class composition of the population. Bronze civilizations, as a rule, create a special class of workers - “slaves”. "Iron" civilizations lead to the emergence of a feudal-dependent population. In ancient Greece - a civilization of the "second" wave, that is, iron - slave labor persisted for a long time throughout its existence and only during the Hellenistic period did it lose its productive significance. In this regard, the question arose about the existence of a “culture of slaves and slave owners.” In particular, some researchers highlight the “slave culture”, but note that there is little information about it. Others believe that since ancient Eastern sources are silent about the “culture of slaves,” it means that it did not exist, since “the attitude of an individual does not have universal significance,” especially since the slaves belonged to different ethnic communities, to different local cultures. In addition, culture is an attitude objectified in words, objects, etc. However, the slave was deprived of the opportunity to objectify his attitude, but was forced to objectify “the attitude of his master.” Slaves, mastering the language and customs of their masters, did not become the creators of some special slave culture. This statement is not entirely correct from a historical point of view. We can remember such a slave as Aesop with his cultural achievement - the “Aesopian language”, which survived for centuries, feeding artistic culture peoples Considering the culture of Ancient Rome, we note the contribution of Greek teachers, slaves by social status. And subsequently, studying world culture, we note that many cultural values were created by slaves - from jazz melodies to dances, from songs to proverbs, sayings, etc. Another thing is that this “slave culture” was suppressed by the dominant culture of slave owners, hushed up, Only isolated traces and mentions of it have reached us. Moreover, the culture of the ruling class was forced to take into account the existence of other “opinions,” refute them and develop its own argumentation. Thus, the dominant culture was forced to reckon with the existence of a slave culture opposing it and acquire appropriate forms. This is most clearly revealed in religion, political culture, and philosophy. Thus, the famous ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle writes: “Nature is designed in such a way that the physical organization of free people is different from the physical organization of slaves, the latter have a powerful body, suitable for performing the necessary physical work, while free people have a free posture and are not capable of performing this kind of work , but they are capable of political life... After all, a slave by nature is one who can belong to another, and who is involved in reason to the extent that he is able to understand its orders, but does not possess reason himself. differs from the benefit delivered by slaves: both of them have their physical forces provide assistance in satisfying our essential needs... It is obvious, in any case, that some people are free by nature, others are slaves, and it is both useful and fair for the latter to be slaves." Until slavery became widespread, this kind of reasoning reflected a widespread prejudice that a slave becomes a slave "by nature". But how to explain the fact that subsequently all the inhabitants of the conquered cities became slaves? Why were the children of slaves slaves? Why do slaves rebel from time to time? Particularly fierce disputes arose among thinkers when the cases of free Athenian citizens turning into slaves - has their nature changed? No, their nature has changed social status, position in society. Slave is social characteristic of a person, and any social phenomenon can appear in its cultural and non-cultural form.
An important role in characterizing the culture of ancient Greece is played by the dialectics of its development. We have identified three periods in her existence, reflecting her three different states. The third period began with the stage of archaic culture, archaism. Let's look at the features of this stage using sculpture as an example. Typical sculptural forms of this period are images called “archaic Apollos and Aphrodites”; they are also called “archaic kouros” (boys) and “koras” (girls). In fact, we do not know who these statues depict, what gods, therefore the names “Apollo” and “Aphrodite” are given conditionally, conventionally. The statues depict young people, a boy or a girl, personifying the gods. In essence, this is a religious sculpture, that is, it performs ideological functions, expressing social interests, and not ideas about beauty in general. Sculptures from this period are characterized by a faint half-smile. It must express and convey the joy and contentment experienced by the deity, the patron of this community and his admirers. God is pleased - people are happy. But there is also a feedback: the community is happy - and the sculptor depicts contentment, joy on the face of God. The sculptures are created to represent the full height of a person. The weight is distributed evenly on both legs. One of them is slightly pushed forward - the deity rushes forward, goes to meet his admirers. It's calm. All parts of the body are depicted symmetrically about the axis. The chest line is carefully processed, the back is finished carelessly. The sculpture was not intended for visitors to walk around it and look at it from all sides. No, only face-to-face communication was envisioned by the sculptor. Thus, we can highlight a number of features of this stage of culture, which reflects the process of its formation: this is a harmoniously developing society, with rationally organized institutions, an atmosphere of contentment and well-being in relationships, a leisurely life, supported by faith in the inviolability of established orders, authorities, and the continued unity of the civil society. and political, ideological principles of culture. This is the stage of formation of the culture of civilization, where social stratification does not lead to political, ideological, or religious conflicts. And the sculptor, using the means available to him, tries to express what the majority of this society experiences. The next stage was called "classic". The very word “classic”, “classical” was introduced in the 2nd century. BC e. Greek critic Aristarchus, who identified a group of the most famous ancient Greek poets according to the degree of artistic merit of their works. Since then, it has become common to call the works classified by Aristarchus in this group “classical”, capable of serving as a model for other poets and writers. Later they began to call them classical best works artistic creativity of all times and peoples. The classical stage in the development of the culture of ancient Greece reflects the peak of its development, its most developed forms, the period of perfection in which social content culture in its most complete form corresponds to its forms of expression and representation.
The reason for the emergence of this stage in the development of culture, which lies most deeply in the basis of society, is hidden in the correspondence of the productive forces and production relations of a given society. This correspondence provides optimal conditions for the development of culture, contributes to its flourishing, harmony, and perfection. The classical period gives us the appearance of a new “severe” style in sculpture. This style is most clearly manifested in the statues of Harmodius and Aristogheton, the works of Critias and Nesiotom, 476 BC. e. Classical sculpture reaches its fullness in the friezes of the Parthenon, in the works of the sculptor Phidias, who created the statue of Athena Parthenos and Olympian Zeus. The work of Myron of Eleuthera dates back to the same period. "Discoball" brought him worldwide fame. No less famous was Polykleitos from Argos.
In the classical period, as a rule, the concept of norm (measure) arises. Thus, Polykleitos established a canon (a set of rules) that dominated sculpture for more than 100 years: the length of the foot should be 1/6 of the length of the body, the height of the head should be 1/8. It is these proportions that are observed in Doryphora. Classics are characterized by the desire to depict not parts, as in the archaic period, but the whole. But at the same time, people are depicted not as concrete, as they are by nature, but as they should be. Thus, classics are guided by an ideal that is formed on the basis of philosophical, aesthetic, moral standards. Thus, the unity of the rational and sensual (irrational) in perception and culture is achieved. Rational, reasonable feelings are formed. There is also a unification of the aesthetic ideal with the political. From here the sculpture acquires civic, political, ideological significance. The unity of political, philosophical, ideological content and artistic form is affirmed.
During the period of decline, which is called Hellenism, the center of cultural innovations moved from Attica to Asia Minor, Egypt, and the islands. During the Hellenistic period, the following were created: the Colossus of Rhodes (sculptor Charet from Mind). Tohe (goddess of happiness) in Antioch, sculptor Eutychides. Nike of Samothrace (sculptor Pythocrates of Rhodes), Venus de Milo (sculptor unknown). Sculptural group "Laocoon" by Athenodorus, Polydorus, Agesander. This creation is coming to an end Hellenistic period. A copy has reached us, discovered in Rome in 1506.
What changed in human perception during the Hellenistic period, with what techniques did the sculptor attract attention - we will answer these questions by examining the sculpture "Laocoon". It depicts a priest from the city of Troy (Fig. 7.5) along with his two sons. In Homer's Iliad, Laocoon is the man who unraveled the Greeks' trick and prevented the giant wooden horse from moving into the fortress walls. For this, the gods punished him by sending a sea monster. The group depicts three male figures entwined with the coils of a serpent. Sculpture is characterized by drawing not only parts, but also the whole - the composition. But the composition itself is asymmetrical. In this way, the perception of “asymmetrical” time of the decay period is achieved. All the figures in the sculpture are in motion, their bodies bent in deadly embraces convey horror, despair, the inevitable feeling of death, and suffering. This impression is not conveyed rationally, it is perceived at the level of feelings, irrationally. Thus, the culture, which initially affirmed a rational, harmonious, calm perception of society, and therefore human behavior, at the end of its existence began to affirm other qualities: irrationality, sensuality, disorder, pessimism, despair. And the point here is not that the sculptors did not see anything good in the future. Life itself testified to the collapse of culture, its passing, and society no longer had enough strength to stop this collapse. Greek antiquity could not find its correct answer to the Challenge of time.
CULTURE OF ANCIENT GREECE
General and special in the development of ancient Greek culture (in comparison with the culture of the peoples of the Ancient East). The significance of the heritage of the Cretan-Mycenaean era. Features of ancient Greek mythology and religion. Chthonic and heroic periods of the development of mythology. Traces of fetishism and animism. Myths about the emergence of the world and the change of generations of gods, about the origin of humanity, about the deeds of heroes. The main deities of the Olympic pantheon. Temples, oracles, major religious festivals. Greek theater and its role in the social life of the polis. Greek tragedians and comedians: Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes. Epic, didactic and lyric poetry. The birth of a love affair. Development of philosophical schools: Ionian natural philosophy, Orthic-Pythagorean doctrine, Democritus, Plato, Aristotle, Stoicism and Cynicism. Social utopias. Oratory. Development of scientific knowledge. The largest Greek historians: Herodotus, Thucydides, Xenophon. Greek architecture, sculpture and painting: changes in styles in different eras.
Civilization Ancient Egypt
1. Features of the ecological and geographical environment of Ancient Egypt and its influence on the specifics of ancient Egyptian culture.
2. Features of the mythology of the ancient Egyptians. Myth, religion and art.
3. Mythological model of the world in Ancient Egypt.
4. The main groups of myths: about the creation of the world, about solar deities, about Osiris and Isis. The idea of an afterlife judgment over the souls of the dead.
Spiritual content aspect
Ancient Chinese culture
- The image of the world in the mythopoetic and religious heritage of Ancient China.
- The philosophical heritage of the region and its influence on world culture.
- Natural scientific knowledge of Ancient China.
Literature
1. Albedil M.F. A forgotten civilization in the Indus Valley. – St. Petersburg, 1991.
2. Afanasyeva V., Lukonin V., Pomerantseva N. The Art of the Ancient East. - M., 1976 (Series “Small History of Art”).
3. Belitsky M. The Forgotten World of the Sumerians. - M., 1980.
4. Bibby J. In Search of Dilmun. - M., 1984.
5. Brentjes B. From Shanidar to Akkad. - M., 1976.
6. Vaiman A.A. Sumerian-Babylonian mathematics. - M., 1961.
7. Woolley L. Ur of the Chaldeans. - M., 1961.
8. Gumilyov L.N. Ethnogenesis and biosphere of the Earth. 3rd ed. - L., 1990.
9. Dmitrieva N.A. Short story arts T.1. - M., 1996.
10.Ancient civilizations. - M., 1989.
11.Dyakonov I.M. Scientific ideas in the Ancient East (Sumer, Babylonia, Western Asia) // Essays on the history of natural science knowledge in antiquity. - M., 1982.
12. Dyakonov I.M. Social and state system of ancient Mesopotamia. - M., 1959.
13. Zamarovsky V. Their Majesties Pyramids. - M., 1981.
14. Jacques K. Egypt of the great pharaohs. History and legend. - M., 1992.
15. History of the Ancient World. T.I-III. - M., 1982.
16.History of art foreign countries. Primitive society. The Ancient East. Antiquity. - M., 1981.
17. History of aesthetic thought: In 6 volumes. T.1. Ancient world. Middle Ages in Europe. - M., 1982.
18. Carter G. Tomb of Tutankhamun. - M., 1959.
19. Keram K. Gods, tombs, scientists. A novel of archeology. - M., 1994.
20. Klengel-Brandt E. Journey to ancient Babylon. - M., 1979.
21. Klima I. Society and culture of ancient Mesopotamia. - Prague, 1967.
22. Klochkov I.S. Spiritual culture of Babylonia: Man, fate, time. - M,: Nauka, 1983. - 624 p.
23. Kovtunovich O.V. Eternal Egypt. - M., 1989.
24.Kramer Samuel N. History begins in Sumer. 2nd ed. - M., 1991.
25. Lyrics of Ancient Egypt. - M., 1965.
26.Lyrical poetry of the ancient Near East. - M., 1983.
27. Lloyd S. Twin Rivers. - M., 1972.
28. Lukonin V.G. Art of Ancient Iran. - M., 1977.
29.McKay E. Ancient culture Indus Valley. M., 1951.
30.Mason V.M. The first civilizations. – L., 1989.
31.Mathieu M.E. Ancient Egyptian myths. - L., 1956.
32. Mathieu M.E. Selected works on the mythology of Ancient Egypt. - M., 1996.
33. Mathieu M.E. Art of Ancient Egypt. - L.-M., 1961.
34. Mathieu M.E., Pavlov V.V. Monuments of art of Ancient Egypt in museums of the Soviet Union. - M., 1958.
35. Mythology of the ancient world. - M., 1977.
36. Mikhalovsky K. Karnak. - Warsaw, 1970.
37. Mikhalovsky K. Luxor. - Warsaw, 1972.
38. Mikhalovsky K. Thebes. - Warsaw, 1974.
39.Mode Heinz. Art of the South and South-East Asia. – M., 1979.
40. Monte P. Egypt of Ramesses. - M., 1989.
41. Neugebauer O. Exact sciences in antiquity. - M., 1968.
42. Oppenheim A.L. Ancient Mesopotamia. - M., 1980.
43. Discovery of India / Transl. from English, Beng. and Urdu / Editorial team: E. Komarov, V. Lamshukov, L. Polonskaya and others - M., 1987.
44. Pavlov V.V. Sculptural portrait of Ancient Egypt. - M., 1957.
45. Poetry and prose of the Ancient East. - M., 1973 (BVL, vol. 1).
46. Reder D.G. Myths and legends of the ancient East. - M., 1965.
47.Semenenko I.I. Aphorisms of Confucius. – M., 1987.
48. Simonov P.V., Ershov P.M., Vyazemsky Yu.P. The origin of spirituality. - M., 1989.
49.Secrets of ancient writings. - M., 1976.
50. Flittner N.D. Culture and art of Mesopotamia and neighboring countries. L.-M., 1958.
51.Frankfort G., Frankfort G.A., Wilson J., Jacobson T. On the threshold of philosophy. Spiritual quests of ancient man. - M., 1984.
52. The Epic of Gilgamesh (“About Seen Everything”). - M.-L., 1961.
53. Jacobsen T. Treasures of Darkness: The History of Mesopotamian Religion. - M., 1995.
Features of Ancient Civilization
1. The place of a person in the polis organization of society.
2. Myth as an explanation of reality in Ancient Greece.
3. The main features of antiquity (literature, art, architecture and plastic arts).
4. The value system of Greek civilization.
Culture of Ancient Greece. The birth of European civilization. "Greek miracle" “Anomaly” of antiquity. The nature of the worldview. Birth of personality. Polis and its role in ancient culture. Ancient Greek philosophy and science. Plato and world culture. Aristotle. Antiquity and the Christian worldview. Hellenistic era.
5. Culture of Ancient Rome. Elinistic-Roman type of culture. Culture of word and spirit. Culture and cult of the Caesars. Total ideologization and regulation. The role of material culture. Individualism and cosmopolitanism. Spread of Christianity.
Europe in the Middle Ages.
1. “Middle Ages”: concept, signs.
2. Social and economic development of Europe in the Middle Ages.
2.1. Feudalism;
2.2. Estates in medieval Europe;
3. Relationships between church and state in the Middle Ages.
4. Specifics of medieval mentality.
Sources and literature:
- Gurevich A.Ya. Categories of medieval culture. – M.: Art, 1984.
- Gurevich A.Ya. categories of medieval culture. - M., 1984.
- History of the Middle Ages: textbook for universities / edited by N.F. Kolesnitsky. – M.: Education, 1980.
- Whipper R.Yu. History of the Middle Ages.
- History of Europe in 8 volumes. T.3.
- Lozinsky S.G. History of the papacy. - M., 1986. Chapter 1.
- Duby J. Europe in the Middle Ages. - Smolensk. 1994.
- Le Goff Jacques. Civilization of the medieval west. – M., 1992.
- Poupart P. The role of Christianity in cultural identity European peoples//Policy. 1996. No. 2.
- Frolova M.A. Western civilization: dominants of formation and development // Socio-political journal. 1993 No. 11/12.
Topic 6
Totalitarianism.
1.Totalitarianism: concept, signs of a totalitarian state and society.
2. Prerequisites and reasons for the establishment of totalitarian political regimes in various countries.
3. Conditions for the emergence and establishment of totalitarian regimes.
Sources and literature:
1 Ponomarev M.V., Smirnova S.Yu. New and recent history countries of Europe and America: Practical guide. – Ch. No. – M., 2000. (from the contents: Legislation of the Third Reich. A. Hitler. Mein Kampf. E. Rehm National Socialist Revolution and Assault Troops. Reader for German youth.)
2 Gadzhiev K.S. Totalitarianism as a phenomenon of the 20th century // Questions of Philosophy. –1992. No. 2.
3 Galkin A.A. German fascism. – M., 1989.
4 Makarevich E. Germany: human programming // Dialogue. 1993. No. 4.
5 Totalitarianism in Europe of the twentieth century. From the history of ideologies, movements, regimes and their overcoming. - M., 1996 Issue 2. Ser. Russia - Germany - Europe.
6 Orlov B. Political culture Russia and Germany: an attempt at comparative analysis. – M., 1995.
7 Semennikova L.I. Russia in the world community of civilizations. – Bryansk, 1996.
8 Sumbatyan Yu. Totalitarian-political phenomenon of the 20th century // Social and humanitarian knowledge. –1999. No. 1.
9 Pyzhikov A. Model of a “national state”. Ideology and practice // Free Thought. –1999. No. 12
10 Shlapentokh V.E. Soviet Union- a normal totalitarian society. Experience of objective analysis // SotsIs. – 2000. No. 2
Topic 7.
Antiquity has a special place in world history, since it was the starting point, the first experience, the foundation and spiritual support of European culture. The term “antiquity” (from the Latin antiquus - ancient) denotes Greco-Roman antiquity. Ancient culture is the largest civilization of the ancient world, occupying geographical location close to each other. The paths common to ancient states were social development and a special form of ownership - ancient slavery, as well as a form of production based on it. What they had in common was a civilization with a single historical and cultural complex. This does not deny, of course, the presence of features and differences in the life of ancient societies. Ancient Greek civilization is usually divided into 5 periods, which are also cultural eras: Crete-Mycenaean or Aegean (III - II millennium BC); Homeric or " dark ages"(XI - IX centuries BC); archaic (VIII - VI centuries BC); classical (V - IV centuries BC); Hellenistic (second half of the 4th - mid-1st centuries BC)
The civilization that arose on the islands of the Aegean Sea, on Crete, as well as on the territory of mainland Greece and Anatolia received the general name of the Aegean civilization, which, in turn, is divided into the Crete-Mycenaean period (late III-II millennium BC) , which includes the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations. In the III-II millennia BC. e. the first states emerge. These were states of a monarchical type, similar to ancient Eastern despotisms, with an extensive bureaucratic apparatus and strong communities. The disappearance of Mycenaean culture in the 12th century. BC e. associated with the invasion from the north of the Balkan Peninsula of Dorian tribes, among whom the tribal system still dominated. The history of Greece after the Dorian invasion begins almost anew. The decomposition of primitive communal relations, the formation of statehood, and the revival of material culture take place again. This period lasted approximately from the 11th to the 9th centuries. and is called the “dark ages”, as well as the Homeric period, since it is known primarily from Homer’s poems “Iliad” and “Odyssey”.
"Dark Ages" - the era of subsistence farming. During the archaic period, crafts were separated from agriculture, which marked the transition to exchange and production not only for one’s own needs, but also for the market, as a result of which cities actively developed. During the period VIII-VI centuries. BC e. The formation of poleis takes place - scattered small sovereign city-states, united only by a common language, religion, cultural traditions, political and trade ties. It becomes economically necessary to create new colonies and increase the number of slaves as the main labor force. At the end of the archaic period, slavery spread in many cities, regardless of the form of organization of the city, including democratic Athens.
The classical period is the time of the highest flowering of ancient Greek society and culture, which occurred in the V-IV centuries BC. e. The most influential political and cultural center After the victory in the Greco-Persian wars, Ancient Athens became. Athens reached its maximum power and cultural flourishing when an outstanding political figure Pericles, who was elected general 15 times. This period is known in historiography as the "Golden Age of Pericles", although it was relatively short-lived. During the period of weakness of the Greek city-states, Macedonia began its rise.
A new stage in the history of the countries of the Eastern Mediterranean - Hellenism - begins with the campaigns of Alexander the Great (IV century BC) and ends with the conquest of the Hellenistic states by Ancient Rome in the 1st century. BC e. Macedonia, having conquered Greece, fully adopted its culture, therefore, after the victorious campaigns of Alexander the Great, ancient Greek culture spread in the conquered eastern countries.
The formation of city-states in Greece - policies, like special type communities gave rise to a new, polis morality - collectivist at its core, since the existence of an individual outside the framework of the polis was impossible. The Greek world has always consisted of many independent policies, sometimes entering into military, religious or some other alliances, but usually independent and self-sufficient in administrative, economic and cultural terms. The process of gradual development of the polis, the early separation of crafts from agriculture and trade, and the rapid growth of commodity-money relations contributed to the transformation of the central settlement of a Greek tribe into a city. Citizens of the polis had the right to own land; were obliged to take part in state affairs, and in case of war - to participate in the civil militia; had the right to publicly express their opinion on any issue and file complaints about illegal actions. The supreme legislative body in the polis was the people's assembly; the executive power was represented by elected (for a certain period of time) bodies and positions: the “council of five hundred”, the jury, etc. Above the citizen in the polis was the collective of the polis (the idea of the sovereignty of the people). Ancient democracy was limited: women, personally free foreigners living on the territory of the polis, and slaves did not have civil rights. There were, in addition to democratic ones (Athens), also oligarchic city states (Sparta), where the vestiges of the tribal system were strong, and power belonged to the hereditary aristocracy. However, ancient Greek civilization as a whole most fully expressed the idea of the sovereignty of the people and the ideal of a democratic form of government; and the polis organization of society became a unique phenomenon, previously unknown in the world of ancient civilizations, which made it possible to effectively solve economic, military and political problems, to achieve high level cultural development.
Ancient Roman civilization is interesting for its own system of spiritual values. The main spiritual guidelines of Roman society were: 1) patriotism; 2) “special chosenness of God” of the Roman people; 3) the idea of Rome as the highest value. Not only crafts, but also artistic pursuits (sculpture, painting, stage acting, drama), and pedagogy were considered unworthy of a Roman citizen. The uniqueness of Roman civilization lay in the fact that it was represented by a variety of forms of socio-political structure known in antiquity. From an early class society led by a “king” (the seven legendary Roman kings were most likely the supreme leaders of tribal alliances), to an early republic, then a developed republic and, finally, to the emergence of a huge and stable state - the Roman Empire (a new type of monarchy , different from the eastern despotism), which absorbed almost all other civilizations of antiquity. Roman civilization lasted 12 centuries, which are divided into three periods: royal VIII-VI centuries. BC.; period of the Roman Republic VI-I centuries. BC.; period of the Roman Empire, 1st century. BC - V century n. e.
During the tsarist period, the primary social organization was formed in Ancient Rome. The population lived in clans, which were ruled by elders. In 509 BC. e. The Romans expelled the last king, Tarvinius the Proud, and proclaimed a republic. The period of the Roman Republic is characterized by the beginning of Rome's territorial expansion and the struggle with Carthage for dominance in the Mediterranean. As a result of wars and the growth of slavery, Republican Rome is experiencing an internal crisis: slave uprisings occur, civil wars. As a result, in 82 BC. commander Sulla establishes sole power, which meant the beginning of the decline of the republican system in Rome. The foundations of the empire that replaced the republic were laid by Gaius Julius Caesar, elected in 59 BC. consul, who became dictator for life and received the title of emperor. After the assassination of Caesar, his great-nephew Octavian Augustus, who became emperor, left behind a huge Roman Empire.
Only those who belonged to ancient families were considered full members of the Roman community. From them a privileged part of Roman society was formed - the patricians, initially only they were considered the Roman people. Another large stratum of society - the plebeians - was in a different position. The plebeians were personally free, but were not included in the clans, and therefore were not members of the community. Plebeians are settlers and inhabitants of conquered regions. Initially, the plebeians had no rights: they were not allowed into public assemblies, did not participate in religious ceremonies, and could not marry patricians. Their struggle for citizenship rights began. In the VI century. BC. plebeians were allowed to military service and to public assemblies. Nevertheless, the plebeians remained without full rights, and in the future this would become the source of long-term social battles in Rome.
Public assemblies played a large role in the public life of Rome. Resolutions of people's assemblies had the force of law. In addition, the tribunes had high powers: they had the right to impose a ban on decisions of the court, the Senate and senior officials if these decisions infringed on the interests of the plebeians. The most important governing body was the Senate, consisting of patricians and the top plebs. He was in charge of questions domestic policy and determined foreign policy. The Senate controlled finances and religion. The Senate was an aristocratic body. In fact, he led the state. In this respect, Roman democracy differed from Athenian democracy. Having turned into a huge power, Rome could no longer remain a community. The first signs of the destruction of its traditional structure and norms of community life appeared in the 2nd century. BC e.
In general, in the ancient world the foundations of civil society were laid, providing for the right of every citizen to participate in government, recognition of his personal dignity, rights and freedoms. Roman law contained a system of norms regulating private property relations. However, democracy in the ancient world was limited.
Literature
1. The World History in dates and events. - M: Raduga, 2002. - P. 34-101.
2. Samygin, P.S., Samygin, S.I., Shevelev, V.N., Sheveleva E.V. History for bachelors / P.S. Samygin, S.I. Samygin, V.N. Shevelev, E.V. Sheveleva. - Rostov-n/D.: Phoenix, 2012. - P. 56-66.
3. Chubaryan, A.O. The World History. In 6 volumes / A.O. Chubaryan. - M: Nauka, 2011.- T.1. - P. 439-479, 575-602.
In all the diversity of its historical forms.
The territorial core is the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula (Balkan, or mainland, Greece), as well as the adjacent islands and the western coast of Asia Minor.
In the northwest it bordered on Illyria, in the northeast on Macedonia, on the west it was washed by the Ionian (Sicilian) sea, and on the east by the Aegean and Thracian seas. It included three regions - Northern Greece, Central Greece and Peloponnese. Northern Greece was divided into western (Epirus) and eastern (Thessaly) parts by the Pindus mountain range. Central Greece was delimited from Northern Greece by the Timfrest and Eta mountains and consisted of ten regions (from west to east): Acarnania, Aetolia, Locris Ozole, Doris, Phocis, Locris Epiknemidskaya, Locris Opunta, Boeotia, Megaris and Attica. The Peloponnese was connected to the rest of Greece by the narrow (up to 6 km) Isthmus of Corinth.
The central region of the Peloponnese was Arcadia, which was bordered on the west by Elis, on the south by Messenia and Laconia, on the north by Achaea, on the east by Argolis, Phliuntia and Sicyonia; Corinthia was located in the extreme northeastern corner of the peninsula. Insular Greece consisted of several hundred islands (the largest are Crete and Euboea), forming three large archipelagos - the Cyclades in the southwest of the Aegean Sea, the Sporades in its eastern and northern parts, and the Ionian Islands in the eastern part of the Ionian Sea.
Balkan Greece is mainly a mountainous country (it is pierced from north to south by two branches of the Dinaric Alps) with an extremely indented coastline and numerous gulfs (the largest are Ambracian, Corinthian, Messenian, Laconian, Argolid, Saronic, Mali and Pagasaic).
The largest of the Greek islands is Crete, southeast of the Peloponnese and Euboea, separated from Central Greece by a narrow strait. The numerous islands of the Aegean Sea form two large archipelagos - the Cyclades in the southwest and the Sporades in the eastern and northern parts. The most significant of the islands off the western coast of Greece are Kerkyra, Lefkada, Kefallenia and Zakynthos.
Subsequently, the boundaries of the ancient world expanded along with the spread of Greek and later Roman civilizations. The ancient world expanded significantly as a result of the campaigns of Alexander the Great, when it included most of the former Persian Empire, primarily Asia Minor and Egypt, which for some time were even the largest centers of antiquity. The next center of expansion was in Rome, and by the time the Roman Empire was founded, almost the entire ancient world was within its borders.
In general, the general periodization of antiquity is as follows:
Early Antiquity (8th century BC - 2nd century BC)
Classical antiquity (1st century BC - 1st century AD), the golden age of the ancient world, the time of the unity of the Greco-Roman civilization.
Late Antiquity (II-V AD). Collapse of the Roman Empire.
The history of ancient Greece is usually divided into 5 periods, which are also cultural eras:
Aegean or Cretan-Mycenaean (III - II millennium BC), Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations. The emergence of the first state entities. Development of navigation. Establishing trade and diplomatic contacts with the civilizations of the Ancient East.
The emergence of original writing. For Crete and mainland Greece at this stage, different periods of development are distinguished, since on the island of Crete, where a non-Greek population lived at that time, statehood developed earlier than in Balkan Greece, which underwent at the end of the 3rd millennium BC. e. conquest of the Achaean Greeks. In fact, the Cretan-Mycenaean period is the prehistory of antiquity.
Homeric (XI - IX centuries BC), This period is also known as the “Greek Dark Ages”. The final destruction of the remnants of the Mycenaean (Achaean) civilization, the revival and dominance of tribal relations, their transformation into early class ones, the formation of unique pre-polis social structures.
Archaic (VIII - VI centuries BC), First period of antiquity. Begins parallel to the decline of the Bronze Age. The beginning of the period of antiquity is considered to be the date of the establishment of the ancient Olympic Games in 776 BC.
Formation of policy structures. Great Greek Colonization. Early Greek tyrannies. Ethnic consolidation of Hellenic society. The introduction of iron into all areas of production, economic growth. Creation of the foundations of commodity production, the spread of elements of private property.
Classical (V - IV centuries BC), V - IV centuries. BC e. - the period of the highest flowering of the polis system. As a result of the victory of the Greeks in the Greco-Persian Wars (500-449 BC), Athens rose and the Delian League (led by Athens) was created. The time of the highest power of Athens, the greatest democratization of political life and the flowering of culture occurred during the reign of Pericles (443-429 BC). The struggle between Athens and Sparta for hegemony in Greece and the contradictions between Athens and Corinth related to the struggle for trade routes led to the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC), which ended in the defeat of Athens.
Characterized. The flourishing of the economy and culture of Greek city-states. Reflecting the aggression of the Persian world power, raising national consciousness. Increasing conflict between trade and craft types of policies with democratic forms government system and backward agrarian cities with an aristocratic structure, the Peloponnesian War, which undermined the economic and political potential of Hellas. The beginning of the crisis of the polis system and the loss of independence as a result of Macedonian aggression.
Hellenistic (second half of the 4th - mid-1st centuries BC). Brief establishment of world power by Alexander the Great. The origin, flourishing and collapse of the Hellenistic Greek-Eastern statehood.
The culture of this region, in which most of the Hellenic metropolises were located, was closely related to the culture of the peoples of Anatolia, essentially being peripheral to the civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt. However, in the new policies on the colonized lands, their influence was significantly weakened. The most active population of the metropolises, who had not adapted to the conditions of clan subordination of life in their homeland, were evicted there. On the one hand, this made him more adaptable to changes (mutations) in public culture.
Hence, apparently, there is a flourishing of philosophy, science, lawmaking and political ideas in the West in Magna Graecia. On the other hand, this contributed to the active adaptation of the Hellenes to new living conditions, the development of crafts, trade, and navigation. The newly founded Greek cities were seaports, and this promoted navigation and trade to the role of institutions that supported the population field. This distinguished the polis civilization from traditional “land” civilizations, where political institutions and ideology served as tools for maintaining the population field.
The presence of colonies stimulated the development of metropolises and accelerated the development of Greek city-states as a whole. The diversity of conditions in the areas inhabited by the Greeks led to the development of trade, specialization and monetary relations. As a result, it becomes possible to save money and ensure one’s existence without clan support. Among the Greek demos, rich people appear who are burdened by the obligation to support the family aristocracy. They themselves can act as exploiters of a considerable number of people, but these people are not free, but slaves. Wealth and nobility are losing their original connection.
Some of the wealthy demotes live in their native cities, the communal mutual assistance of which is recognized by them as an important life value. Others, mainly artisans and merchants, flee from their aristocrats to other policies, becoming metics there. The quantitative growth of the mass of these people created the preconditions for a social revolution that overthrew the power of the tribal aristocracy. But it was possible to defeat it only when the demos was able to take over the leading role in military affairs from the aristocracy, when the aristocratic cavalry was replaced by a phalanx of heavily armed hoplite infantry.
Common to ancient states were the paths of social development and a special form of property - ancient slavery, as well as the form of production based on it. What they had in common was a civilization with a common historical and cultural complex. Religion and mythology were the main, core elements in ancient culture. For the ancient Greeks, mythology was the content and form of their worldview, their worldview; it was inseparable from the life of this society.
On the basis of ancient culture, categories of scientific thinking first appeared and began to develop; the contribution of antiquity to the development of astronomy and theoretical mathematics was great. That is why ancient philosophy and science played such an important role in the emergence of modern science and the development of technology. In general, the culture of antiquity was the basis for the further development of world culture.
VIII-VI centuries BC e. were a period of rapid economic growth in the history of ancient Greece. It was at this time that major shifts occurred in all major industries. If in previous times metal casting was carried out using molds, and larger objects were riveted with a hammer on a wooden template, now Glaucus of Chios (VII century) discovered a method for soldering iron, and Samian craftsmen introduced much more advanced methods of casting metals, apparently borrowing them in the East.
The Homeric epic says nothing about the development of iron and copper mines in Greece; the necessary pieces of metal were probably exchanged mainly with the Phoenicians. In the VIII-VI centuries. iron and copper ores began to be mined in Greece itself; Thus, copper, according to the testimony of the Greek geographer Strabo, was mined, for example, in the mines near Chalkis, on Euboea. Iron mines, although of small size, were already known at that time in Lakonica and a number of other places.
In the VIII-VI centuries. happening in Greece further development shipbuilding, taking into account the achievements of Phoenician shipbuilders. Warships (pentekonter or “long” - with 50 oarsmen) had one or two rows of oarsmen, a deck and a room for soldiers, and in front at water level was a ram covered with copper; merchant ships (“round”) were built with high, rounded bows and sterns and a spacious hold. By the end of the 8th century. BC e., according to the ancient Greek historian Thucydides, the first triremes were built in Corinth - fast warships of a more complex design, with a crew of 200 oarsmen. However, trieres became widespread only in the 5th century. BC e.
Significant changes are taking place in the construction industry at the time under review. The relatively primitive buildings of Homeric times are replaced by much more extensive and architecturally more advanced buildings. Work that was so grandiose for that time was being undertaken, such as the construction of a water pipeline in Samos, the construction of roads, etc.
In parallel with the development of technology, the social division of labor continues to progress. The work of urban artisans begins to become increasingly isolated from agricultural labor. New specialties are emerging. Thus, by the end of this period, the previously inseparable specialties of blacksmith and foundry worker, potter and master artist painting ceramics were differentiated. Slave labor begins to be used in craft workshops.
The development of trade is clearly evidenced by the widespread appearance and distribution of coins. There is also a trend towards establishing common weight systems. The technique of minting coins was apparently borrowed by the Greeks in the first half of the 7th century. among the Lydians; then it spread with extraordinary speed throughout Greece.
With the growth of crafts and trade, centers of pan-Greek relations emerged. In particular, the most revered sanctuaries in Greece are now beginning to play such a role. Pan-Greek festivities were not only religious in nature. Around the temples on festival days a kind of fair arose. The temples themselves actively participated in them, accepting cash deposits and issuing loans at interest. Here political negotiations were held, poets, musicians and artists competed, whose works became the property of a wide circle of the population.
The Greek alphabet, introduced in the 9th-8th centuries, became a powerful tool of cultural progress. BC e. and which represented a modification of the Phoenician alphabet, but with an extremely significant addition: the Greeks for the first time introduced the designation of not only consonants, but also all vowels. This made writing more perfect and reading much easier.
Ancient culture, primarily of Ancient Greece and Rome, is the founder of Western European culture and its value system. Moreover, it is necessary to keep in mind the following most important circumstance. The Neolithic revolution and the formation of early civilizations in Europe followed approximately the same scenario as the development of eastern civilizations, right up to the archaic period (from the 8th century BC). But then the development of ancient Greece took a fundamentally different path than in the East. It was then that the East-West dichotomy began to emerge.
The ancient version of development became an exception to general rule, this is a kind of social mutation, and for reasons that are not entirely clear. In the entire history of mankind, this option was the only one and unique in nature and results. The consequences of the “archaic revolution” that took place were truly world-historical, especially for the fate of Western European culture.
The basis of the transformation that took place was the highlighting of private property relations, especially in combination with the dominance of private commodity production, primarily market-oriented, with the exploitation of private slaves in the absence of a strong centralized government and with the self-government of the community, city-state (polis).
After the reform of Solon (VI century BC), a structure based on private property arose in ancient Greece, which did not exist anywhere else in the world. The dominance of private property brought to life political, legal and other institutions characteristic of it and serving its needs: a system of democratic self-government with the right and obligation of every full citizen, member of the polis, to take part in public affairs, in the management of the polis; a system of private law guarantees with the protection of the interests of each citizen, with recognition of his personal dignity, rights and freedoms; as well as a system of sociocultural principles that contributed to the flourishing of the individual, the development of the individual’s creative potential, his energy, initiative, and entrepreneurship.
In the ancient world, the foundations of civil society were laid, which served as the ideological and institutional foundation for the rapid development of the ancient market-private property structure. With all this, ancient society became fundamentally different from all other societies, especially eastern ones. The ancient structure took a different path of development than all the others, moreover, more quickly, dynamically and effectively. Subsequently, these principles formed the basis for the flourishing of cities medieval Europe, on a similar structure the Renaissance arose and the bourgeois society of the New Age strengthened.
It was on this basis that capitalism quickly developed, becoming a powerful force influencing the development of the entire world.
The following features are characteristic of ancient culture::
1) anthropocentrism: belief in the power and purpose of man, the Greek philosopher Protagoras formulated the most important principle of antiquity that “man is the measure of all things”;
2) rationalism: recognition of the special role of reason and knowledge;
3) aestheticism: the desire for harmony and admiration for beauty, and man himself was the standard of beauty;
4) democracy: culture is not elitist, it is the result and property of the entire society of free citizens;
6) the desire to make culture a way of life worthy and desirable to the people;
7) low religiosity: attitude towards religion rather as a civil rite, an external ritual, rather than an internal conviction;
8) turning to art and philosophy as the most important dominants of life, a transition from mythology to an attempt at a philosophical explanation of the world.
Philosophy and science are unconditional achievements of ancient culture. The most vivid cultural and ideological revolution manifested itself in the history of Ancient Greece during the classical period (V - IV centuries BC). A fundamentally new attitude to the world was formed, an ideological and cultural breakthrough occurred, which caused the emergence of a new type of personality, going beyond the framework of traditional society, the concept of personal value was established;
9) glorifying human activity, encouraging competition (sports, politics, rhetoric, art);
10) organic connection between the citizen and the polis on the basis of an established civil society with the principle of the primacy of the citizen over the state;
11) understanding of freedom as the highest moral category.
The culture of antiquity received special development due to a number of factors:
Culture was created on the basis of advanced economic relations, on slavery of the classical type, on private property, on commodity-money relations. The economy has created sufficient material opportunities for cultural progress, for rapid social and economic economic development, there are opportunities for professional mental activity. Moreover, sharp social stratification was limited, and the middle strata dominated.
A dynamic urban culture has emerged. The city is the center of ancient culture, where various leisure activities appeared.
The ruling class of slave owners and the numerous middle strata adjacent to them, which made up civil society, were active in socio-political terms and provided a favorable environment for the creation and perception of cultural values.
Democratic forms of government favored the development of culture in breadth and depth. There was no closed layer of the ruling elite and a developed bureaucracy, there was no mercenary army, concentration of power was not allowed, the norm was the turnover and controllability of the administrative apparatus, citizens were close to state institutions, actively participated in public affairs. Democracy has created the need for a cultural, broad-minded individual.
There was no powerful priestly organization, which in the countries of the Ancient East monopolized, to a large extent, the process of spiritual production and directed it into the mainstream of religious ideology. The nature of the Greek religion, the simplicity of religious rites, and the conduct of the main religious ceremonies by elected representatives of citizens excluded the possibility of the formation of an extensive and influential priestly corporation and its monopoly in cultural creativity. This predetermined the freer nature of education, the upbringing system, worldview and the entire culture, its faster and more intensive development.
Widespread literacy based on the alphabet, which allowed access to the wonderful works of historians, philosophers, playwrights, writers, and speakers. It was the opportunity to read and competently judge what was read that became an important stimulus for the creativity of ancient thinkers.
Intensive information connections with other countries and cultures, accumulation of knowledge of Ancient Eastern civilizations, openness of ancient culture.
Development of strict forms of thinking, rules of proof, that is, the formation of a new culture of thinking. Science demonstrates a new attitude to the result of knowledge, when truth is recognized as the most important value arising on the basis of rational operations, objectivity, and verifiability. Although, of course, scientific knowledge has not yet played a decisive role next to the mythological-religious, traditional consciousness.
The educational system of antiquity put forward the ideal of kalokagathia - as a harmonious, comprehensive development of the individual, with civic virtues and social qualities of a person coming to the fore, where physical valor was manifested in war, mental development - in government affairs, and moral qualities - in the rules of community life.
Recordings from seminars:
A citizen is a free, independent member of society who enjoys the fullness of civil and political rights in inextricable unity with his duties.
Polis is an urban civil community with adjacent properties, based on a dual form of ownership: private (the basis is civil initiative) and state (the goal is to achieve social stability and protection of society).
Democracy - political regime, is based on a method of integrated decision-making with equal rights for everyone to the outcome of the process. Every citizen had the right and obligation to participate in the political life of the polis; there was no separation of powers.
The idea of citizenship is freedom
The highest civic value is personal labor on one's own land.
The problem of myth ran like a red thread through all ancient philosophy, culture, and art. In the era of antiquity, myth began to gradually lose its mystery and reveal its properties and patterns. In ancient civilization, the rational comprehension of myth-making began. Ancient thought developed a number of deep and original concepts of myth-making, and accumulated significant experience for its later scientific and rationalist interpretations, up to those that had already developed in line with modern European thinking. All this is not accidental.
Ancient civilization is the greatest and most beautiful phenomenon in the history of mankind. Created by the ancient Greeks and ancient Romans, which existed since the 8th century. BC. until the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. AD, i.e. For more than 1,200 years, it has given the world outstanding examples of creativity in essentially all areas of the human spirit. It was there that for the first time in history the ideal of rationalism- the belief that the world consists of things and processes that interact and change according to natural laws that do not depend on the will, consciousness and desires of man.
CHAPTER 1. ANCIENT RATIONALIZATION OF MYTH: THE BEGINNING OF THE PATH
In the complex of material and spiritual prerequisites of ancient culture, the following components can be distinguished:
♦ development of productive forces, technology (development of iron and production of iron tools);
♦ the development of economic relations, the transition from an early class society to a developed slave society, with its characteristic abstract social relations (master-slave relations, a developed system of commodity-money relations with ideas about value, abstract labor);
♦ territorial expansion, which led to cultural contacts with the most different countries and peoples;
♦ plurality of policies (city-states), each of which had its own traditions; polis plurality did not destroy, but, on the contrary, strengthened the consciousness of pan-Greek cultural unity;
♦ social organization of the polis, the open, democratic nature of many Greek city policies;
♦ relative political equality of free citizens, the presence of political rights and personal freedoms;
♦ a developed sense of civic responsibility (every Greek considered himself responsible for the fate of the entire state-police, because the fate of each of its citizens depended on the state of the polis);
♦ the presence of the most advanced writing system for those times (phonetic, alphabetic writing), i.e. systems of means for recording, storing and transmitting information;
♦ dissemination of public discussions (which required the ability to convincingly, logically, and reasonably defend one’s point of view), development of methods of logical proof;
♦ institutionalization of the training and education system;
♦ individualization spiritual world personality, the formation of self-awareness, self-esteem and critical rational thinking;
