The textbook has been prepared in accordance with new program in physiology for universities physical culture and requirements State standard higher vocational education. The textbook is intended for students, graduate students, researchers, teachers, trainers and doctors working in the field of physical education.
METHODS OF PHYSIOLOGICAL RESEARCH.
Physiology is an experimental science. Knowledge about the functions and mechanisms of the body’s activity is based on experiments conducted on animals, observations in the clinic, and examinations of healthy people under various experimental conditions. At the same time, in relation to a healthy person, methods are required that are not associated with damage to his tissues and penetration into the body - the so-called non-invasive methods.
IN general form physiology uses three methodological research methods: observation or the “black box” method, acute experience and chronic experiment.
Classical research methods were methods of removal and methods of irritation of individual parts or entire organs, mainly used in experiments on animals or during operations in the clinic. They gave an approximate idea of the functions of removed or irritated organs and tissues of the body. In this regard, a progressive method for studying the whole organism was the method of conditioned reflexes developed by I. P. Pavlov.
IN modern conditions The most common are electrophysiological methods that allow recording electrical processes without changing the current activity of the organs being studied and without damaging the integumentary tissues - for example, electrocardiography, electromyography, electroencephalography (registration of electrical activity of the heart, muscles and brain). The development of radio telemetry makes it possible to transmit these received records over considerable distances, and computer technologies and special programs- provide subtle analysis of physiological data. The use of infrared photography (thermal imaging) allows us to identify the hottest or coldest areas of the body observed at rest or as a result of activity. With the help of so-called computed tomography, without opening the brain, you can see its morphofunctional changes at different depths. New data on the functioning of the brain and individual parts of the body are provided by the study of magnetic oscillations.
CONTENT
Preface 3
Part I GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY 7
1. Introduction. History of Physiology 7
1.1. The subject of physiology, its connection with other sciences and its significance for physical culture and sports 7
1.2. Methods of physiological research 8
1.3. Short story physiology 9
2. General patterns physiology and its basic concepts 10
2.1. Basic functional characteristics of excitable tissues 11
2.2. Nervous and humoral regulation of functions 12
2.3. Reflex mechanism of activity nervous system 13
2.4. Homeostasis 14
2.5. The emergence of excitation and its implementation 15
3. Nervous system 18
3.1. Basic functions of the central nervous system 18
3.2. Basic functions and interactions of neurons 19
3.3. Features of the activity of nerve centers 22
3.4. Coordination of the activities of the central nervous system 26
3.5. Functions of the spinal cord and subcortical parts of the brain 30
3.6. Autonomic nervous system 35
3.7. Limbic system 38
3.8. Functions of the cortex cerebral hemispheres 39
4. Higher nervous activity 44
4. 1. Conditions of formation and types of conditioned reflexes 44
4.2. External and internal inhibition of conditioned reflexes 47
4.3. Dynamic stereotype 48
4.4.Types of higher education nervous activity, I and II signal system 48
5. Neuromuscular system 50
5.1. Functional organization of skeletal muscles 50
5.2. Mechanisms of contraction and relaxation of muscle fiber 52
5.3. Single and tetanic contraction. Electromyogram 54
5.4. Morphofunctional bases of muscle strength 57
5.5. Modes of muscle operation 60
5.6. Energy of muscle contraction 62
6. Voluntary movements 64
6.1. Basic principles of movement organization 64
6.2. The role of various parts of the central nervous system in the regulation of posture-tonic reactions 67
6.3. The role of various parts of the central nervous system in the regulation of movements 70
6.4. Descending motor systems 73
7. Sensory systems 75
7.1. General plan of organization and functions of sensory systems 75
7.2. Classification and mechanisms of receptor excitation 76
7.3. Properties of receptors 77
7.4. Information coding 79
7.5. Visual sensory system 80
7.6. Auditory sensory system 85
7.7. Vestibular sensory system 87
7.8. Motor sensory system 90
7.9. Sensory systems of the skin internal organs, taste and smell 93
7.10. Processing, interaction and meaning of sensory information 95
8. Blood 99
8.1. Composition, volume and functions of blood 100
8.2. Blood Elements 101
8.3. Physicochemical properties of blood plasma 105
8.4. Blood coagulation and transfusion 107
8.5. Regulation of the blood system 110
9. Blood circulation 111
9.1. Heart and its physiological properties 111
9.2. Movement of blood through vessels (hemodynamics) 116
9.3. Regulation of the cardiovascular system 120
10. Breathing 123
10.1. External respiration 124
10.2. Exchange of gases in the lungs and their transfer by blood 126
10.3. Breathing regulation 129
11. Digestion 131
11.1. general characteristics digestive processes 131
11.2. Digestion in various parts of the gastrointestinal tract 133
11.3. Absorption of food digestion products 139
12. Metabolism and energy 140
12.1. Protein metabolism 140
12.2. Carbohydrate metabolism 141
12.3. Lipid metabolism 142
12.4. Exchange of water and mineral salts 143
12.5. Energy exchange 145
12.6. Regulation of metabolism and energy 147
13. Selection 149
13.1. General characteristics of excretory processes 149
13.2. Kidneys and their functions 149
13.3. The process of urine formation and its regulation 151
13.4. Homeostatic kidney function 153
13.5. Urinary excretion and urination 154
13.6. Sweating 154
14. Heat exchange 156
14.1. Human body temperature and isothermia 156
14.2. Mechanisms of heat generation 157
14.3. Heat transfer mechanisms 158
14.4. Heat transfer regulation 159
15. Internal secretion 160
15.1. general characteristics endocrine system 160
15.2. Functions of the endocrine glands 163
15.3. Changes in endocrine functions under various conditions 173
Part II SPORTS PHYSIOLOGY 178
Section GENERAL SPORTS PHYSIOLOGY 178
1. Sports physiology - educational and scientific discipline 179
1.1. Sports physiology, its content and tasks 179
1.2. Department of Physiology, St. Petersburg State Academy of Physical Culture, Kim. P.F. Lesgafta and its role in the formation and development sports physiology 181
1.3. State and prospects for the development of sports physiology 185
2. Adaptation to physical activity and reserve capabilities of the body 188
2.1. Dynamics of body functions during adaptation and its stages 189
2.2. Physiological features of adaptation to physical activity 193
2.3. Urgent and long-term adaptation to physical activity 195
2.4. Functional adaptation system 198
2.5. The concept of physiological reserves of the body, their characteristics and classification 201
3. Functional changes in the body during physical activity 203
3.1. Changes in the functions of various organs and systems of the body 203
3.2. Functional shifts under constant power loads 205
3.3. Functional shifts under variable power loads 206
3.4. Application value functional changes to assess the performance of athletes 208
4. Physiological characteristics of the body’s states during sports activity 209
4.1. The role of emotions in sports activities 209
4.2. Pre-launch states 213
4.3. Warm-up and activation 215
4.4. Steady state during cyclic exercises 217
4.5. Special conditions of the body during acyclic, static and variable power exercises 218
5. Physical performance of an athlete 219
5.1. Concept of physical performance and methodological approaches to its definition 220
5.2. Principles and methods of testing physical performance 221
5.3. The connection between physical performance and the direction of the training process in sports 227
5.4. Physical performance reserves 228
6. Physiological basis of fatigue in athletes 233
6.1. Definition and physiological mechanisms of fatigue development 233
6.2. Fatigue factors and state of body functions 236
6.3. Features of fatigue during various types physical activity 239
6.4. Pre-fatigue, chronic fatigue and overwork 241
7. Physiological characteristics recovery processes 243
7.1. General characteristics of recovery processes 244
7.2. Physiological mechanisms of recovery processes 246
7.3. Physiological patterns of recovery processes 248
7.4. Physiological measures to increase recovery efficiency 250
Section II PRIVATE SPORTS PHYSIOLOGY 253
8. Physiological classification and characteristics of physical exercises 253
8.1. Various exercise classification criteria 253
8.2. Modern classification exercise 254
8.3. Physiological characteristics of sports poses and static loads 256
8.4. Physiological characteristics of standard cyclic and acyclic movements 259
8.5. Physiological characteristics of non-standard movements 263
9. Physiological mechanisms and patterns of development of physical qualities 266
9.1. Forms of manifestation, mechanisms of development of strength 266
9.2. Forms of manifestation, mechanisms and reserves for the development of speed 270
9.3. Forms of manifestation, mechanisms and reserves for the development of endurance 273
9.4. The concept of dexterity and flexibility; mechanisms and patterns of their development 278
10. Physiological mechanisms and patterns of formation of motor skills 279
10.1. Motor abilities, skills and methods of their research 279
110.2. Physiological mechanisms of motor skills formation 280
10.3. Physiological patterns and stages of motor skills formation 283
10.4. Physiological basis for improving motor skills 289
11. Physiological basis of fitness development 292
11.1. Physiological characteristics of training and state of fitness 292
11.2. Testing the functional readiness of athletes at rest 294
11.3. Testing the functional readiness of athletes under standard and extreme loads 297
11.4. Physiological characteristics of overtraining and overexertion 300
12. Sports performance in special conditions external environment 303
12.1. The influence of temperature and humidity on sports performance 303
12.2. Sports performance under conditions of altered barometric pressure 305
12.3. Sports performance when changing climatic conditions 309
12.4. Physiological changes in the body during swimming 310
13. Physiological bases of sports training for women 313
13.1. Morphofunctional features of the female body 313
13.2. Changes in body functions during training 320
13.3. The influence of the biological cycle on women’s performance 324
13.4. Individualization of the training process taking into account the phases of the biological cycle 327
14. Physiological and genetic features of sports selection 329
14.1. Physiological-genetic approach to issues of sports selection 330
14.2. Hereditary influences on the morphofunctional characteristics and physical qualities of a person 332
14.3. Taking into account physiological and genetic characteristics of a person in sports selection 336
14.4. The significance of genetically adequate and inadequate choice of sports specialization, style of competitive activity and sensorimotor dominance 343
14.5. Using Genetic Markers to Find Highly and Fast Trained Athletes 347
15. Physiological foundations of health-improving physical culture 350
15.1. The role of physical culture in conditions modern life 350
15.2. Hypokinesia, physical inactivity and their effect on the human body 353
15.3. Neuropsychic stress, monotony of activity and their impact on the human body 355
15.4. The main forms of health-improving physical culture and their influence on the functional state of the body.358
Part III AGE PHYSIOLOGY 364
1. General physiological patterns of growth and development of the human body 364
1.1. Periodization and heterochronicity of development 364
1.2. Sensitive periods 366
1.3. The influence of heredity and environment on the development of the organism 369
1.4. Acceleration is epochal and individual, biological and passport age 371
2. Physiological characteristics of the body of children of preschool and primary school age and their adaptation to physical activity 375
2.1. Development of the central nervous system, higher nervous activity and sensory systems 375
2.2. Physical development and musculoskeletal system 382
2.3. Features of blood, circulation and respiration 383
2.4. Features of digestion, metabolism and energy 386
2.5. Features of thermoregulation, processes of secretion and activity of the endocrine glands 388
2.6. Physiological features of adaptation of children of preschool and primary school age to physical activity.391
3. Physiological characteristics of the body of children of middle and high school age and their adaptation to physical activity 411
3.1. Development of the central nervous system, higher nervous activity and sensory systems 411
3.2. Physical development and musculoskeletal system 416
3.3. Features of blood, circulation, breathing 419
3.4. Features of digestion, excretion and endocrine system 422
3.5. Features of thermoregulation, metabolism and energy 427
3.6. Physiological features of adaptation of children of middle and high school age to physical activity 429
4. Physiological features of a physical education lesson at school 448
4.1. Physiological justification for rationing physical activity for school-age children 449
4.2. Changes in body functions of schoolchildren during a physical education lesson 451
4.3. The influence of physical education classes on the physical, functional development, performance of schoolchildren and their health 453
4.4. Physiological and pedagogical control over physical education classes and physiological criteria for restoring the body of schoolchildren 460
5. Physiological characteristics of the body of mature and elderly people and their adaptation to physical activity 465
5.1. Aging, life expectancy, adaptive reactions and reactivity of the body 465
5.2. Age-related features of the musculoskeletal system, autonomic and sensory systems 468
5.3. Age-related features of regulatory systems 473
5.4. Physiological features of adaptation of mature and elderly people to physical activity 476
6. Physiological features of information processing in athletes of different ages 487
6.1. The importance of information processing processes and their age characteristics 487
6.2. Physiological bases of the processes of perception, decision-making and programming of response actions 489
6.3. Speed and efficiency of tactical thinking. Brain bandwidth 492
6.4. Noise immunity of athletes, its age characteristics 495
7. Functional asymmetries of athletes of different ages 496
7.1. Motor asymmetries in humans, their age-related characteristics 496
7.2. Sensory and mental asymmetries. Individual asymmetry profile 498
7.3. Manifestation of functional asymmetry in athletes 501
7.4. Physiological bases of training process management taking into account functional asymmetry 505
8. Physiological bases of individual typological characteristics of athletes and their development in ontogenesis.507
8.1. Individual typological characteristics of a person 508
8.2. Development of typological features of ontogenesis 510
8.3. Individual typological characteristics of athletes and their characteristics training process 512
8.4. Individual typological features of biorhythms and their impact on human performance 515
Conclusion 520.
Textbook for higher educational institutions physical culture. 7th edition
Approved by the Ministry of the Russian Federation for Physical Culture and Sports as a textbook for higher educational institutions of physical culture
The publication was prepared at the Department of Physiology of the National state university physical culture, sports and health named after. P. F. Lesgafta, St. Petersburg
Reviewers:
V. I. Kuleshov, doctor med. sciences, prof. (VmedA named after S. M. Kirov)
I. M. Kozlov, Doctor of Biology and doctor ped. sciences, prof. (NSU named after P.F. Lesgaft, St. Petersburg)
© Solodkov A. S., Sologub E. B., 2001, 2005, 2008, 2015, 2017
© Publication, LLC Publishing House "Sport", 2017
Aleksey Sergeevich Solodkov – Professor of the Department of Physiology of the National State University of Physical Culture, Sports and Health named after. P. F. Lesgafta (head of the department for 25 years, 1986–2012).
Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation, Academician of the Petrovsky Academy of Sciences and Arts, Honorary Worker of Higher Professional Education of the Russian Federation, Chairman of the section “Physiology of Sports” and member of the Board of the St. Petersburg Physiological Society named after. I. M. Sechenov.
Sologub Elena Borisovna – Doctor of Biological Sciences, Professor. Since 2002 he has lived in New York (USA).
At the Department of Physiology of the National State University of Physical Culture, Sports and Health. P.F. Lesgafta worked since 1956, from 1986 to 2002 - as a professor of the department. Was elected academician Russian Academy Medical and Technical Sciences, Honorary Worker higher education Russia, member of the Board of the St. Petersburg Society of Physiologists, Biochemists and Pharmacologists named after. I. M. Sechenov.
Preface
Human physiology is theoretical basis a number of practical disciplines (medicine, psychology, pedagogy, biomechanics, biochemistry, etc.). Without understanding the normal course of physiological processes and the constants that characterize them, various specialists cannot correctly assess the functional state of the human body and its performance in various operating conditions. Knowledge of the physiological mechanisms of regulation of various body functions is important in understanding the course of recovery processes during and after intense muscular labor.
Revealing the basic mechanisms that ensure the existence of a whole organism and its interaction with environment, physiology makes it possible to clarify and study the conditions and nature of changes in the activity of various organs and systems in the process of human ontogenesis. Physiology is the science that carries out systems approach in the study and analysis of diverse intra- and intersystem relationships of complex human body and bringing them together specific functional formations and a unified theoretical picture.
It is important to emphasize that domestic researchers play a significant role in the development of modern scientific physiological concepts. Knowledge of the history of any science is a necessary prerequisite for a correct understanding of the place, role and significance of the discipline in the content of the socio-political status of society, its influence on this science, as well as the influence of science and its representatives on the development of society. Therefore, consideration of the historical path of development of individual branches of physiology, mention of its most prominent representatives and analysis of the natural science base on which the basic concepts and ideas of this discipline were formed make it possible to evaluate current state subject and determine its further promising directions.
Physiological science in Russia in the 18th–19th centuries is represented by a galaxy of brilliant scientists - I. M. Sechenov, F. V. Ovsyannikov, A. Ya. Danilevsky, A. F. Samoilov, I. R. Tarkhanov, N. E. Vvedensky and etc. But only I.M. Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov deserve the credit for creating new directions not only in Russian, but also in world physiology.
Physiology as an independent discipline began to be taught in 1738 at the Academic (later St. Petersburg) University. Moscow University, founded in 1755, also played a significant role in the development of physiology, where the Department of Physiology was opened within its structure in 1776.
In 1798, the Medical-Surgical (Military Medical) Academy was founded in St. Petersburg, which played an exceptional role in the development of human physiology. The Department of Physiology created under her was successively headed by P. A. Zagorsky, D. M. Vellansky, N. M. Yakubovich, I. M. Sechenov, I. F. Tsion, F. V. Ovsyannikov, I. R. Tarkhanov, I. P. Pavlov, L. A. Orbeli, A. V. Lebedinsky, M.P. Brestkin and other outstanding representatives of physiological science. Behind each named name there are discoveries in physiology that are of global significance.
Physiology was included in the curriculum at physical education universities from the first days of their organization. At the Higher Courses of Physical Education created by P. F. Lesgaft in 1896, a physiology office was immediately opened, the first director of which was Academician I. R. Tarkhanov. In subsequent years, physiology was taught here by N.P. Kravkov, A.A. Walter, P.P. Rostovtsev, V.Ya. Chagovets, A. G. Ginetsinsky, A. A. Ukhtomsky, L. A. Orbeli, I. S. Beritov, A. N. Krestovnikov, G. V. Folbort and others.
The rapid development of physiology and the acceleration of scientific and technological progress in the country led to the emergence in the 30s of the 20th century of a new independent section of human physiology - sports physiology, although individual works devoted to the study of body functions during physical activity were published at the end of the 19th century (I O. Rozanov, S. S. Gruzdev, Yu. V. Blazhevich, P. K. Gorbachev, etc.). It should be emphasized that systematic research and teaching of sports physiology began in our country earlier than abroad, and was more targeted. By the way, we note that only in 1989 the General Assembly of the International Union of Physiological Sciences decided to create a commission under it “Physiology of Sports”, although similar commissions and sections in the system of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, the All-Union Physiological Society named after. I. P. Pavlova of the USSR State Sports Committee have existed in our country since the 1960s.
The theoretical prerequisites for the emergence and development of sports physiology were created by the fundamental works of I. M. Sechenov, I. P. Pavlov, N. E. Vvedensky, A. A. Ukhtomsky, I. S. Beritashvili, K. M. Bykov and others. However, the systematic study of the physiological foundations of physical culture and sports began much later. Particularly great merit in the creation of this section of physiology belongs to L. A. Orbeli and his student A. N. Krestovnikov, and it is inextricably linked with the formation and development of the University of Physical Culture. P.F. Lesgaft and his department of physiology - the first such department among physical education universities in the country and in the world.
After the creation in 1919 of the Department of Physiology at the Institute of Physical Education. P. F. Lesgaft teaching this subject carried out by L. A. Orbeli, A. N. Krestovnikov, V. V. Vasilyeva, A. B. Gandelsman, E. K. Zhukov, N. V. Zimkin, A. S. Mozzhukhin, E. B. Sologub, A. S. Solodkov and others. In 1938, A. N. Krestovnikov published the first “Textbook of Physiology” in our country and in the world for physical education institutes, and in 1939 – the monograph “Physiology of Sports”. An important role in further development The teaching of the discipline was played by three editions of the “Textbook of Human Physiology” edited by N.V. Zimkin (1964, 1970, 1975).
